Physical Development in Middle Childhood free essay sample

One important factor of physical activity during these years is to improve their gross and fine motor skills which assists with the many other benefits that being physically active will give a child. Their gross and fine motor skills are becoming more advanced and need to be capitalised upon. Children are learning to ride bikes, play in organised and team orientated sports – all with more co-ordination and understanding than before. While engaging in these activity’s they are improving their gross motor skills and this gives them a great sense of gratification. Also during this time their fine motor skills will be improving such as their handwriting, drawing, painting, crafts and building. In the middle childhood years children are becoming more aware of their surroundings, community and culture. They can start to see themselves as an individual that can read, write, learn and adhere to rules and understand why we need them. We will write a custom essay sample on Physical Development in Middle Childhood or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Physical development can affect other areas of development in very positive ways. It helps them to be able to relate interact with others. This era sees those making relationships with their peers. They make friendships with others and along with friendship come the enviable fights. This is also important as they learn to sort out these disagreements and learn from them. This comes from their developing ability to think for themselves – having different points of view, being able to see others points of view and having a longer attention span. The skills they are learning and improving at this very important time of their lives will assist them as children and builds the foundations of having great confidence within themselves and having healthy and active bodies. It is believed that inability to perfect their gross fine motor skills by being physically inactive will lead to many consequences not only physically but also in other areas of their development. Inactivity will inhibit the Childs co-ordination, spatial awareness, social skills; their larger muscles would be underdeveloped. Inactivity promotes obesity and other serious health issues. At this age children have boundless energy and find it hard to sit down for long periods of time as their bodies and brains crave the need to more around and are active. Along with the need to move comes the need for attention and socialising. During this time their bodies are growing taller and gaining weight. Physical activity is crucial at this time because they are showing themselves what their bodies are able to do and what they are able to do better than when the learned the skill. For example when children are in their early childhood they learn how to run and jump, in middle childhood they are taking those skills and developing proper athletic abilities and talents. They can run faster on the track, swim faster in the pool and throw balls with more precision and show themselves and others the talents they are developing. If during this time they are not able to do that they will see their peers excelling at these activities and that they themselves are falling behind. This severely affects their confidence. They are very aware of their peers and compare themselves to others constantly which is why they are adapting to organised sports – their competitiveness is kicking in. It’s in the children’s nature to want to be active in sports and it gives them the stimulation and organisation that they need. It’s also in some children’s nature to be shy and reserved. It’s important for all students to be improving their skills but most important for the more reserved children. Inactivity will only perpetuate their shyness because they are missing out on group activities in a fun environment. Being a part of a team helps confidence and communication with their peers. Children need to embrace being active from early on – especially now as their bodies crave being active they will associate ‘activity’ with ‘fun’. Inability to develop their gross motor skills can lead to the children feeling sluggish, weight will be gained lowering their confidence and increasing the risk of obesity and their relationship with physical activity will be mentally unhealthy. Inability to develop their fine motor skills is also just as important. This is the time where children need to perfect their handwriting, craft making and reading these are very important skills that they will need for the rest of their lives. If children find they don’t excel at these skills they will find they get frustrated, it lowers they confidence and willingness to try and parts of heir brain are underdeveloped. For example in this era children are starting to dress themselves and inability to do this will leave them frustrated and disappointed that they are behind. As parents and teachers we need to do our best to always keep the children active as it most certainly affects the other areas of their development. Implementing ph ysical activity in lessons is very important. There are 3 activities that I will now explain that I think are great ways to implement to help with keeping the children active and improving their motor skills. Firstly I would have each child in the classroom have a job they need to do every day in the classroom. Whether it is to give out work books, hand out pens, feed the plants or collect lunch orders. This gives each child the understanding of the importance of rules, responsibilities and the feeling of being included and the knowledge of being able to share and work as a team. This activity is more related to their fine motor skills and cognitive development. Secondly I would introduce the ‘Gold Star’ System. I would have the students chose a book and reading aloud to the class. During this time if the children are stuck on a word they don’t know other students can assist with helping them. If the student reads the book without any help they receive 5 gold stars. I would also have the children practice their handwriting and everything they submit a neatly written piece of writing they would also receive 5 gold stars. If the children need assistance many times or have sloppy writing they have stars deducted. This also helps with fine motor skills and they also can show how well they can read write and help others with their reading writing. Thirdly I would introduce team sports based around maths and spelling. I think it would be a great learning environment to take the students outside to a basketball court or an oval and have them grouped into teams. I would give them maths and spelling questions and the teams with the most correct answers would add more gold stars to their boards. I think this would be a really fun way to learn, challenge themselves and burn off energy. Working in teams is fantastic motivation to not let yourself or any of your team mates down. In conclusion, Physical activity is vital in the middle childhood years for many reasons. Inactivity leads to many consequences in the Childs Health, Motor Skills and all other areas of child development. There are many things as Teachers we can do to in a learning environment to accommodate the physical needs of our students as to make sure they are developing as best they can be. ? Reference List McDevitt, T. , and Ormrod, J. (2010). Child development and education (4th Ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education

Investigating the 2012 Olympics Stadium and the Wembley Stadium The WritePass Journal

Investigating the 2012 Olympics Stadium and the Wembley Stadium 1.Introduction Investigating the 2012 Olympics Stadium and the Wembley Stadium 1.Introduction 2. Olympic Stadium Overview2.1 The organisations2.1.1 The London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games (LOCOG):2.1.2 The Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA):2.2 The London 2012 stakeholders2.2.1 The British Olympic Association (BOA)2.2.2 The Department for Culture, Media Sport (DCMS)2.2.3 The Mayor of London2.2.3.1 The London Development Agency2.2.3.2 Transport for London2.2.3.3 The Olympic Park Regeneration Steering Group (OPRSG)2.2.4 The Olympic Board2.2.5 Olympic Park Legacy Company2.2.6 The British Paralympic Association (BPA)2.2.7: The five Host Boroughs3 The London 2012 Sustainability Plan 4. The Olympic Stadium Analysis2.1 stakeholders The Football AssociationDepartment of Culture, Media and SportSport EnglandThe London Development AgencyReferenceRelated 1.Introduction Project management has changed to plan, manage as well as organize the complex and different performances of modern industrial, business and organization change and IT projects. Every projects share a common feature which is the projection of ideas and performance into new activities. The pervasive factor of risk and uncertainty means that the actions and tasks leading to completing the project can certainly not be predicted with total accuracy. Cases of projects that have gone beyond their expenses by massive sum of money, not on time or being neglected before completion, such failures are common and seen in all kinds of projects in manufacturing, business and the public sector. The purpose of project management is to predict various risk and trouble as possible and to plan, manage and organize activities so that projects are completed successfully in spite of all the risks. The main aim of a project manager is for the product of the project to suit what the client as well as all the other major stakeholders requested for, within the promised timescale and without asking for additional money or resources than what was initially budgeted. The Olympic Stadium will host the Athletics and Paralympics Athletics events at the London 2012 Games, as well as the Opening and Closing Ceremonies. The Olympic Stadium is a professional stadium intended to be as sustainable as possible while catering for an Olympic event. The Olympic Stadium design was promoted as an example of sustainable progress; however a number of architecture reviewer have queried both its aesthetic value and suitability as a national icon especially when compared to Beijing National Stadium. Wembley stadium is a 90,000-capacity venue is the second largest stadium in Europe, and serves as Englands national stadium. It is the home venue of the England national football team, and hosts the latter stages of the top level domestic club cup competition, the FA Cup. 2. Olympic Stadium Overview The games Every four years, a new Host City begins its preparations for the Summer Olympic Games and Paralympics Games. The timing and the preparation are usually conducted under intense analysis, with the motive to meet the deadline for the completion of the project prior to the delivery of the project. The London’s 2012 Olympics games bid was based on the fact that it will make a massive change in London as well as the United Kingdom through the Olympic Games and Paralympics’ Games. The location of the 2012 Games will be the Olympic Park in east London, which is known for its diverse communities in the United Kingdom, and at the western edge of the Thames Gateway the biggest regeneration project in Europe. 2.1 The organisations There are two major organisations that there main focus is to make sure the delivering of the London 2012 Games is remarkable, they are namely: 2.1.1 The London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games (LOCOG): this organisation is responsible for plannin g and staging the Olympics Games. LOCOG is a private company limited by guarantee, and makes approximately all its financial support from the sale of tickets and products, sponsorship and broadcasting revenues which could be a total of  £2 billion. The London 2012 brands the support the games needs to be very confined to ensure that the funds can be raised and use for the intended purpose. 2.1.2 The Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA): this organisation is responsible for building the new venues and infrastructure for the Games, and make sure that they have a practical legacy use. The ODA is also responsible for converting the Olympics park for long-term use after the games is over. The ODA, which is also the planning authority for the Olympic Park site in east London, is a public body supported through council tax, National Lottery and regeneration funding. The ODAs work is underpinned by six main concern themes which are: design and accessibility, employment and skills, equality and inclusion, health, safety and security, sustainability, and legacy. LOCOG and the ODA are supported by the different London 2012 stakeholders, who are also responsible for ensuring that United Kingdom athlete, London, and the United Kingdom as a whole gain as much as possible from the 2012 Games. 2.2 The London 2012 stakeholders 2.2.1 The British Olympic Association (BOA) The BOA chooses leads and prepares Team GB at every summer, winter and Youth Olympic Games. The BOA is not supported financially or controlled by government as it is completely dependent upon commercial sponsorship and fundraising income to provide the support for Team GB. The BOA is also responsible for promoting the Olympic spirit and ideas through the charitable arm which is known as the British Olympic Foundation. 2.2.2 The Department for Culture, Media Sport (DCMS) The Department for Culture, Media Sport (DCMS) is responsible for the London Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Act 2006, the generally finances of the Games, and sponsorship of the Olympic Delivery Authority. The Department for Culture, Media Sport (DCMS) is also responsible for putting together the legacy benefits taken by all the business enterprise, cultural, environmental, educational and wider sporting proposal that will place all over the country as a result of the game before, during and after the London 2012. 2.2.3 The Mayor of London Boris Johnson, the mayor of London, works with the Greater London Authority (GLA) Group ensuring that all Londoners get the most possible benefit from the 2012 Games. He is also responsible for ensuring. The Mayor of London is also a member of the Chairpersons of the Olympic Board, which manages the 2012 project. The mayor of London is also directing some few departments that works together to ensure that the London 2012 is a success and they are namely: 2.2.3.1 The London Development Agency The Mayor’s London Development Agency (LDA) is responsible for the physical, social and economic legacy of the Olympic Park area. The Mayor’s London Development Agency is also responsible for skills and employment programmes, plan to boost common games participation as well as proposing London as a place to do big or small business. The Mayor’s London Development Agency is working in partnership with local authorities, London 2012, local communities, public sector bodies and other organisations in the planning and delivery of new communities and the restoration that they can support. 2.2.3.2 Transport for London The Transport for London is also under the Mayor of London’s direction, it is spending billions of pounds to bring a transport legacy for east London before 2012, to ensure that the east London area have a constant increase in transport investmen 2.2.3.3 The Olympic Park Regeneration Steering Group (OPRSG) The Olympic Park Regeneration Steering Group (OPRSG) offers direction of the Olympic legacy agenda for east and south east London. Its main concern is to ensure the development and delivery of the Legacy Master plan Framework. The purpose of the framework is set out a clear vision for the upcoming progress of the Olympic Park and its immediate environment, which will commences as soon as the games are over. 2.2.4 The Olympic Board The Olympic Board offers oversight, strategic coordination and monitoring of the entire 2012 Games project, making sure that the delivery of the pledge made to the IOC when the games was being awarded to London as well as a lasting legacy from the staging of the games. 2.2.5 Olympic Park Legacy Company The Olympic Park Legacy Company is responsible for the long-term planning, development, management and maintenance of the Olympic Park and its facilities after the London 2012 Games. The Olympic Park Legacy Company plans to develop the park to a new and successful park of the London city. 2.2.6 The British Paralympic Association (BPA) The British Paralympic Association (BPA) is responsible for sending off the best and finest prepared team to represent Great Britain at the winter and Summer Paralympic Games. At the Beijing Paralympic Games Paralympics GB had their most successful Games ever, winning 42 gold medals and finishing second on the medal table. The British Paralympic Association is also responsible for promoting the Paralympic Movement in the UK. 2.2.7: The five Host Boroughs The five Host Boroughs which are namely Greenwich, Hackney, Newham, Tower Hamlets and Waltham Forest are also key partners in supporting and delivering the Games in east London. Apart from the core area of the Games there are many other local authorities, both in London and elsewhere in the United Kingdom that will play host to Games venues, training camps and cultural activities. 3 The London 2012 Sustainability Plan London 2012 and the London 2012 stakeholders share a commitment to maximise sustainability, and the beneficial impact of the 2012 Games, across all these phases of the 2012 programme. The opening of the Olympic Games in London on 27 July 2012 is drawing close, and many plans and ideas are still in development. Sustainability, particularly, is a fast developing discipline, with new methods and technologies constantly being created to lessen ecological impacts and make best use of the social and economic benefits. The London 2012 Sustainability Plan covers the three main phases of the Games programme: Training: 2012 Games training concentrates on the proposal and building of the Olympic Park along with other permanent site and infrastructure. Event production: the lack of dependable data from other events makes it complicated to categorize targets and set new targets. Building a lasting and sustainable legacy: The 2012 Games have to secure a motivated and long-term physical and social legacy for the Olympic Park area and around the UK. The amenities and the Olympic Park itself will be the platform for a detailed, in progress and environmentally responsible regeneration programme. 4. The Olympic Stadium Analysis The Olympic Stadium design was endorsed as example of sustainable development, although a number of architecture reviewers have questioned both its aesthetic value and suitability as a national icon especially when compared to Beijing National Stadium. The Olympic stadium design was launched on 7 November 2007. The architect, Populous, is an architectural company which   focus on the design of sports facilities and conference centre, as well as planning of major special events. The Sydney’s Olympic bid used the Olympics to change its focus and brought about change, The Sydney’s Olympic also used the Olympics as a means of placing environmental permit to the public so as to think about sport and the change about to be implemented through delivering metropolitan regeneration. For many cities and countries, sport is now a means for making inward investment as well as reinforcing Brownfield sites; the strategy was used in Manchester and Melbourne (Commonwealth Games of 2002 and 2006 respectively), in Germany (2006 World Cup) and is currently being used by Glasgow in its bid for the 2014 Commonwealth Games. London won its bid on the back of three factors each of which factored in the concept of legacy; 1) London is known as one of the world’s most culturally and ethnically diverse populations 2) London is concerned about restoring one of the unprivileged areas of the city, which is in progress, by providing a legacy of amenities for local people 3) The benefactors of the Olympics are said to children, with the idea that different nations could link through sport. This point is said to be cause that made London’s bid stand out of the rest of the nation bids. The costs of hosting the Olympics are considerable, and have huge impacts upon people, space and financial commitment. London’s bid – unlike that of Paris – was focused upon a complete re-brand and re-construction of a brownfield site along the Lea Valley in east London. A range of new facilities is to be built in the area, together with the use of existing stadia for football. There is little doubt that the media will focus upon the impacts of the Olympics in terms of their costs. The same focus occurred in Sydney in the 5-6 years leading up to 2000, particularly in respect of costs arising from the remediation of polluted sites. Economic Impacts The government announced in January 2009 that more than 30,000 new jobs will be created between 2009 and 2012. Recent news coverage suggests the construction workforce for the Olympic site is expected to increase to around 6,000 by the end of 2009, despite the economic downturn which is affecting many other parts of the construction industry. As with Sydney, projected costs have proved to be gross underestimates. It is fair to ask whether the figures can now balance. The UK Government estimated in mid-2007 that costs would reach  £10 billion, over four times the original estimate, but that these would be exceeded by the scale of benefits. It is worth noting here that – Wembley Stadium apart – virtually every sports regeneration and construction project in the UK in recent years (e.g. Arsenal Emirates Stadium, Manchester Commonwealth Games) has been completed on time and to budget. The likely outcome is, therefore, that budgets will have been revised, but will be delivered, and that the deadlines are likely to be met with room to spare. Environmental Impacts Sydney branded itself as the world’s first ‘Green Olympics’. The plans for London have developed this concept further, with a focus upon environmental improvement, in some cases designed by the same design personnel responsible for Sydney. The central focus is Olympic Park, the first major park in London for over a century. The total economic impact is the sum of direct, indirect, and induced impacts resulting from the Games. The direct impact can be attributed to purchases of Games organisers in the preparation and execution of the Olympic and Paralympic Games. Indirect impacts are felt in the goods and service industries that supply the industries that receive expenditures by Games organisers. Induced impacts are generated from the spending by people employed indirectly or directly by Games expenditures On a note of caution, none of the previous Olympics, not even Sydney, have significantly increased sports participation to a level or duration where this might conceivably lead to health benefits. It will need a high risk carefully thought through approach to succeed. Managing Change On a project of this scale and profile the team have had to be extremely flexible and adaptable to change. Requirements from the Olympic Delivery Authority side have remained consistent but as the London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games (LOCOG) began to ramp up their work, they made some changes to the project scope. As an example of this, it was agreed that the technology needed for the opening ceremony would be installed as part of the construction of the stadium rather than at the end. This additional work was not part of the original project scope, and so led to some delays while the works were catered for. However, the integrated approach of the team to challenges such as these has meant that the team were confident that these changes could be absorbed without affecting the overall programme. There are many forums established to facilitate learning between projects across the park. Park wide health and safety forums are held regularly and cross park meetings are regularly held at every level from CLM project manager, to director, to environmental manager meetings. A team from the project visited the Beijing Olympics so that any lessons from that project could be taken forward. In addition, the International Olympic Committee provided top tips from previous Olympic games Constraints and challenges There are limits on what can be achieved by London 2012. They do not lessen our ambition, but they need to be presented openly:– Some plans, for example for the treatment of waste during and after the 2012 Games, will depend on the provision of facilities and technologies that are not yet in place. Where this is the case, we can only signal our intention, and set out the developments that we will depend on to make this intention a reality.– The 2012 Games can act as a catalyst for new building technologies and new approaches to staging events, but the approaches used must be robust enough to cope with the largest event in the world and to take account of immovable deadlines, the priorities of sport and security, and contractual obligations to sponsors and rights holders.– The work being done to integrate sustainability into event planning and management is ground breaking. Although many other major events, including previous Games, have carried out ‘greenin g’ initiatives, there is very little reliable quantitative information on which to base strategies and targets. – Budgets must be respected: value for money does not mean lowering ambitions to achieve the lowest costs, but economic viability (and the added value that can be achieved through sustainable procurement) must be seen as an integral part of overall sustainability.– London 2012 can commit to the standards it will meet, but in other areas we can only influence, using the huge inspirational power of the Games to encourage others to change their behaviour, for example by encouraging international spectators to minimise the carbon impact of their travel to the UK. For specific cases, like a number of transport infrastructure projects, London 2012 is a part-funder but does not have complete control. 3. Wembley Overview Wembley was designed by architects HOK Sport and Foster and Partners with engineers Mott MacDonald, built by Multiplex and funded by Sport England, WNSL (Wembley National Stadium Limited), the Football Association, the Department for Culture Media and Sport and the London Development Agency. It is the most expensive stadium ever built at a cost of  £798 million and has the largest roof-covered seating capacity in the world. The all seater stadium is based around a bowl design with a capacity of 90,000, protected from the elements by a sliding roof that does not completely enclose it. It can also be adapted as an athletic stadium by erecting a temporary platform over the lowest tier of seating. The stadium’s signature feature is a circular section lattice arch of 7 m (23 ft) internal diameter with a 315 m (1,033 ft) span, erected some 22 ° off true, and rising to 140 m (459 ft) tall. It supports all the weight of the north roof and 60% of the weight of the retractable roof on the southern side. The archway is the world’s longest unsupported roof structure. The initial plan for the reconstruction of Wembley was for demolition to begin before Christmas 2000, and for the new stadium to be completed sometime during 2003, but this work was delayed by a succession of financial and legal difficulties. It was scheduled to open on 13 May 2006, with the first game being that year’s FA Cup Final. However, worries were expressed as to whether the stadium would actually be completed on time. The new stadium was completed and handed over to the FA on 9 March 2007, with the total cost of the project (including local transport infrastructure redevelopment and the cost of financing) estimated to be  £1 billion. The delays started from the very start. The procurement process to contractor followed a twin track approach. Multiplex, who ultimately won the contract, were given preferential treatment from the start. The official Wembley Stadium website announced that the stadium would be open for public viewing for local residents of Brent on 3 March 2007, however the event was delayed by two weeks and instead happened on 17 March. The keys to the new Wembley stadium were finally handed over to the owners on 9 March 2007 ready to be open and used for upcoming FA Cup football matches, concerts and other events. 2.1 stakeholders The Football Association The FA was founded in 1863 as the governing body for football in England. The FA is responsible for all regulatory aspects of the game of football in England and is responsible for promoting the development of the game at every level. The FA runs the England Teams, The FA Cup, The FA Community Shield, Womens Football, The FA Youth Cup and a range of other competitions. Every year the stadium hosts all home, senior England International games, The FA Cup final and semi-finals, The FA Community Shield and The FA Vase and Trophy Finals. Wembley National Stadium Limited, the company that operates Wembley Stadium, is a fully owned subsidiary of The FA. Department of Culture, Media and Sport The sponsoring department for Sport England. The department is led by the Secretary of State, Rt Hon Tessa Jowell MP, who sits in the Cabinet. The Department is providing  £20million of funding towards the stadium project. This contribution will pay for non-stadium infrastructure improvements to the Wembley area. Sport England A Government agency, formerly The Sports Council. It leads the development of sport in England by influencing and serving the public, private and voluntary sectors. It is responsible for the administration of the sports section of the National Lottery in England. A  £120million Lottery Grant funded the purchase of the old Wembley Stadium. The London Development Agency The London Development Agency is the capitals economic development body, promoting economic renewal and development. Its one of nine Regional Development Agencies. Working for the Mayor and in partnership with businesses and other organisations it benefits all Londoners by delivering economic development and regeneration for the capital. The LDA has contributed  £21million to the project Controversy and events during construction When the project first started, it was delayed for two years due to financial and political difficulties before eventually getting underway in late 2002. The stadium was supposed to be completed by May 2006 for the FA Cup Final, but this was transferred to Cardiff following consultation with Multiplex about when the stadium would be finished. Multiplex was unable to complete the stadium within the scheduled time and had to pay penalties. In December 2008, Multiplex sued the stadium designer Mott MacDonald for  £253m saying that it was denied access to key design information that led to increased steelwork costs. A few construction problems were highlighted during the project. The first was a problem between Multiplex and the steel contractor Cleveland Bridge. Cleveland Bridge walked off the job in 2004 shortly before the arch was raised because they did not believe they would be paid for materials and there were irrevocable difficulties between the two parties. The problems resulted in two high-profile court cases where the two companies sued each other for breach of contract (Multiplex sued for  £45m and Cleveland Bridge sued for  £22.5m to recover what it believed it was owed). In September 2008, Multiplex won the case and received  £6m from Cleveland. The second problem involved a temporary roof support rafter, which fell by over half a metre in March 2006. This resulted in the evacuation of 3,000 construction workers and delayed worked while inspections and reports were carried out. The project began again shortly afterwards. Later, in March 2006, a third problem came to light. The sewers under the stadium had buckled due to ground movement. Remedial work started later on. The stadium was scheduled to be completed by late summer 2006; however, it was completed in March 2007 moving the scheduled sport events to other stadium. Analysis It is easy to see the impact of failed project management in works such as Wembley stadium. It damaged the reputation which hampers the ability to gain further work. Customers were very dissatisfied as they were hoping that it`s construction will be completed on time. Cost was so over ruined that lead to huge loss of profit. This project damaged the relationship with sub-contractors and other business partners, financial penalties were paid to the workforce and there was a huge amount of low morale amongst the workforce. First we look at the Time, cost and The Legal battle over the Wembley stadium issue. The first major problem concerning Wembley stadium was the time and cost  issue. Wembley stadium was almost delayed for eight long years.  Plans for a new national stadium have been dogged by delays, management problems and spiralling costs since Wembley was chosen in December 1996. The designs were unveiled in 1999. This was  due to several problems .when the project first started it was delayed for two yrs due to financial and political difficulties but got underway in 2002.This guide to Multiplex paying penalties for the late finishing of the contract although they have threatened to sue WNSL over changes in the design which they suggest the main reason responsible for the project being late. The first problem was between multiplex and the steel contractor Cleveland Bridge, Bridge walled away from the job in 2004 because they believe that they were not going to be paid for materials and there were irrevocable difficulties between two parties. On the other hand the temporary roof support which fell by over half a metre in march 2006 which resulted in the evacuation of 3000 construction workers and delayed work while inspections and reports were carried out .Later in march 2006 the problem of light came in context .The sewers under the stadium had buckled due to ground movement ,Remedial work was put into action for this and is currently nearing completion.It is also been claimed by multiplex that wrong type of concrete was used in the foundation The financial pressures on Wembley could increase if the Olympic Stadium in Stratford is retained as an 80,000-capacity stadium following the games. If the Olympic Stadium were to be retained as an 80,000-capacity venue, an idea that is again gaining ground, it could harm the future viability of both. Wembley made a loss of  £23m in 2008 once depreciation, interest payments and tax were taken into account. Despite refinancing its loans, the operating company faces several years of onerous interest payments on the  £757m stadium. The continuing strain that Wembley places on the FAs accounts has become more significant in the wake of the collapse of Setantas  £150m broadcasting deal. The FA is hoping to conclude a replacement deal with the BBC for the remaining FA  Cup rights but is likely to have to accept a significant drop in income. Construction challenges The construction presented a number of challenges. No stadium has ever been built this way, so architects and engineers had to use complex computer models to predict how the structure would behave if built in certain ways. Given the special history of the previous Wembley Stadium, the designers had to pay particular attention to the atmosphere of the stadium, including the way it will sound with a full crowd cheering. Again, computers were used to simulate the acoustics of the new stadium before the design was agreed upon. http://plagiarism.pro/ crossrefme.net/scripts/report7.php http://searchenginereports.net/articlecheck.aspx duplichecker.com/search.asp dustball.com/cs/plagiarism.checker/ Reference ^ Work begins on 2012 Olympic field. BBC News. 2010-05-23. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/8699319.stm. ^ News: New era of stadium design begins with Olympic Stadium London 2012. london2012.com/news/media-releases/2007-11/new-era-of-stadium-design-begins-with-olympic-stadium.php. Retrieved 2008-08-05. guardian.co.uk/football/2009/nov/17/wembley-stadium-2012-olympic-games

Involvement in Iraq Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Involvement in Iraq - Essay Example After US invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan on the premise that the two latter nations were involved in the generation and manufacture of biological weaponry, the US was able to quell international concerns of terrorism brought by the two Middle East countries (Tucker, 2010). However, even after quelling Iraq and Afghanistan’s terrorism threats, the US is still very much mixed up in Iraq and Afghanistan. This paper will question whether or not the US involvement in the two nations is necessary. It is irrefutable that the US invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan has ensured global peace and security. For almost a decade now, American foreign policy has been pegged on the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. At the beginning of 2011, there were 50,000 US soldiers in Iraq and 100,000 in Afghanistan. The involvement of the US in both countries is still robust despite the decline of American soldiers compared to previous years (Rashid, 2008). This involvement is entirely uncalled for, and is rather improper. The US should no longer be involved in the affairs of Iraq and Afghanistan, especially because of the cost implication associated with such involvement. In American history, Iraq has been the second most expensive choice of war, after Vietnam in the 1960s (Tucker, 2010). In order to deter the further use of military and economic resources in the two nations, it is pertinent that the US seizes its involvement in the countries. While US troops were expected to leave Iraq by December 2011, several thousand soldiers remained. The main role of the troops has been to advise and train Iraqi police and military forces, as well as conducting antiterrorism missions. After the loss of 4,300 American lives and more than one trillion dollars, it is evidently time for America to cut its losses and accept the positive effects of the war and simply withdraw from Iraq and Afghanistan (Woodward, 2010). War is a costly affair with regard to

Wilfred Owen's poem, Dulce Et Decrum Est and Tim O'Brien's The Things Research Paper

Wilfred Owen's poem, Dulce Et Decrum Est and Tim O'Brien's The Things They Carried deal with two different war - Research Paper Example The main theme that dominates both works is as follows: the realities of war that soldiers on the ground experience contradicts the idealistic view of war promoted by governments / the military. Compare/contrast the approaches and strategies these writers use to explore this theme. The most painful episodes of twentieth century history are its wars. Starting with the losses of the First World War in 1914 the Second World War was even more catastrophic. Then followed the theatre of the Cold War, in which the American military intervened far and wide in the globe. Notable examples include the Korean War and the Vietnam War. The two works in discussion, Wilfred Owen’s â€Å"Dulce Et Decrum Est† and Tim O’Brien’s â€Å"The Things They Carried† talk about two of the several wars of the recent century, namely the First World War and the Vietnam War. The political context, military strategy and technological aids employed in these two wars were quite diffe rent. Yet, their human tragedy remains the same. Separated by half a century, these two conflicts reflected the global geo-political power equations of their respective times. The two authors, far from glorifying war, present the realities of it in all its gory detail. Their works clearly suggest that futility and absurdity are the captions to the phenomenon of war. This view is in opposition to government/military propaganda, which would have its population believe that war is a noble of enterprise, undertaken to promote high values such as democracy, liberty, etc. There is even the preposterous propaganda slogan that ‘War is necessary to achieve peace’. The rest of this essay will flesh out the following thesis: Far from government rhetoric of the purpose and virtue of war, up-close observations of the actual theatre of war show how despairing, absurd and tragic the event is. The poem ‘Dulce Et Decrum Est’ is the best known of Wilfred Owen’s war po etry, the opening lines of which portray the wretched travails of a soldier during the First World War: â€Å"Bent double, like old beggars under sacks, / Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge, / Till on the haunting flares we turned our backs/ And towards our distant rest began to trudge.† (Owen, 1917) There is a palpable atmosphere of gloom and hopelessness that faced soldiers of the First World War and Owen’s poem starkly captures this reality. The genius of Owen is his ability to create art out of this most despairing human experience. The fact that Owen himself succumbed in the war is a powerful testimony to the messages and sentiments expressed in the poem. To place it in historical context, the First World War is one of the major tragic events in twentieth century history. Referred to as the Great War, it accounted for great loss of lives and material resources. For example, the trauma suffered by soldiers is captured in these lines â€Å"In all my dreams, before my helpless sight/ he plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning.† (Owen, 1917) Dulce Et Decrum Est is remarkable in its ability to move the reader. It also excels in stunning and disturbing the reader’s preconceived notions of war. So, while the shockingly graphic elements in the poem sit uncomfortably in the reader’s mind, it is a sound method for condemning the atrocities of war. Owen’s works in general, including the poem in question, also concern themselves with what he saw as â€Å"poetry's failure to render war's actualities truthfully. In the draft preface written for a projected collection of his war poetry, Owen states, "All a poet can do today is warn. That is why the true Poets must be truthful". (Cyr, p.65) This is a veiled criticism of official government portrayal of war, which largely serves a propagandistic

Innocent Brand and Mc Donald's Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Innocent Brand and Mc Donald's - Case Study Example UltimatÐ µly, thÐ µ company is Ð µmploying product positioning along linÐ µs of customÐ µr sÐ µgmÐ µntation to rÐ µach groups who arÐ µ likÐ µly to spÐ µnd monÐ µy on fruit smoothiÐ µs at McDonalds. â€Å"DÐ µspitÐ µ introducing hÐ µalthiÐ µr choicÐ µs such as carrot sticks and frÐ µsh fruit bags, McDonald’s has strugglÐ µd to shÐ µd its unhÐ µalthy, supÐ µr sizÐ µ mÐ µ imagÐ µ. InnocÐ µnt, on thÐ µ othÐ µr hand, has a carÐ µfully cultivatÐ µd and clÐ µvÐ µrly markÐ µtÐ µd Ð µthical brand imagÐ µ, diffÐ µrÐ µntiating it from compÐ µtitors† (CasÐ µ, 2011). This nÐ µÃ µds to bÐ µ donÐ µ in tÐ µrms of two sÐ µgmÐ µnts for targÐ µt markÐ µting, individual buyÐ µrs and rÐ µprÐ µsÐ µntativÐ µ buyÐ µrs. ThÐ µ nÐ µxt stÐ µp in product positioning is to dÐ µtÐ µrminÐ µ how to convincÐ µ thÐ µsÐ µ sÐ µgmÐ µnts that thÐ µy will bÐ µ making a wisÐ µ dÐ µcision in buying this particular kind of smoothiÐ µ, which is bÐ µttÐ µr than thÐ µ compÐ µtitors’ choicÐ µs, and that thÐ µy can rÐ µly on thÐ µ company to mÐ µÃ µt thÐ µir nÐ µÃ µds. To do this, onÐ µ nÐ µÃ µds to kÐ µÃ µp in mind that in tÐ µrms of thÐ µ markÐ µting mix, thÐ µrÐ µ must bÐ µ a balancÐ µ of customÐ µr sÐ µgmÐ µntation and product sÐ µgmÐ µntation. InnocÐ µnt facÐ µs problÐ µms of markÐ µting rÐ µach, targÐ µt markÐ µting, product diffÐ µrÐ µntiation, and brand diffÐ µrÐ µntiation. HowÐ µvÐ µr, thÐ µsÐ µ problÐ µms can bÐ µ turnÐ µd into opportunitiÐ µs. KÐ µy IssuÐ µs ThÐ µ kÐ µy playÐ µrs in thÐ µ casÐ µ includÐ µ managÐ µmÐ µnt and Ð µmployÐ µÃ µs at both InnocÐ µnt and McDonalds. ... FurthÐ µr, pÐ µoplÐ µ bÐ µcomÐ µ fattÐ µr with agÐ µ and thÐ µrÐ µforÐ µ an incrÐ µasing numbÐ µr of childrÐ µn bÐ µcomÐ µ adults with incrÐ µasÐ µd risk. CurrÐ µnt national hÐ µalth goals suggÐ µst that good hÐ µalth should rÐ µflÐ µct a statÐ µ of wÐ µll-bÐ µing, quality of lifÐ µ and frÐ µÃ µdom from disÐ µasÐ µ. GivÐ µn thÐ µ importancÐ µ of wÐ µll-bÐ µing as a national hÐ µalth goal it is nÐ µcÐ µssary to dÐ µtÐ µrminÐ µ thÐ µ Ð µxtÐ µnt to which pÐ µoplÐ µ Ð µxcÐ µÃ µding physiological hÐ µalth standards of obÐ µsity may bÐ µ at risk of low sÐ µlf-pÐ µrcÐ µptions. AnothÐ µr kÐ µy issuÐ µ that thÐ µ casÐ µ brings up is that of Ð µffÐ µctivÐ µ targÐ µt markÐ µting. DÐ µfinÐ µ thÐ µ ProblÐ µm & thÐ µ Opportunity ThÐ µ kÐ µy problÐ µm in thÐ µ casÐ µ is how InnocÐ µnt can rÐ µach its targÐ µt markÐ µt, Ð µspÐ µcially childrÐ µn. â€Å"But, dÐ µprÐ µssingly, morÐ µ than 90 pÐ µr cÐ µnt of kids i n thÐ µ UK do not gÐ µt thÐ µir rÐ µcommÐ µndÐ µd daily intakÐ µ of fruit. ThÐ µ Ð µxpansion of thÐ µ smoothiÐ µs’ distribution into supÐ µrmarkÐ µts such as TÐ µsco’s supports thÐ µ suggÐ µstion that InnocÐ µnt doÐ µsn’t mind whÐ µrÐ µ thÐ µ product is sold† (CasÐ µ, 2011). McDonalds has always bÐ µÃ µn Ð µffÐ µctivÐ µ at markÐ µting to childrÐ µn, so InnocÐ µnt can ridÐ µ thÐ µ largÐ µr company’s coat-tails in somÐ µ ways. But InnocÐ µnt also nÐ µÃ µds to targÐ µt parÐ µnts. In tÐ µrms of busy mothÐ µrs, this targÐ µt markÐ µt may want diffÐ µrÐ µnt things from thÐ µ product than childrÐ µn for any numbÐ µr of rÐ µasons. First of all, oldÐ µr consumÐ µrs arÐ µ buying thÐ µ product dirÐ µctly for thÐ µmsÐ µlvÐ µs, whilÐ µ busy mothÐ µrs arÐ µ buying thÐ µ product for thÐ µir offspring. This should lÐ µssÐ µn thÐ µ product sidÐ µ of thÐ µ markÐ µting mix in tÐ µrms of thÐ µ custom Ð µrs’ individuality, and slant it morÐ µ

Milling machines: An introduction

Milling machines: An introduction Chapter I 1.1 Introduction The ability of any nation to manufacture is essential but to deploy that ability in a certain nation is the trick as every nation defers from one another, so in order to enhance Arab nation ability to manufacture we will provide a better cheaper design for a CNC milling machine. The Primary Objective of This Project is to present and develop a prototype for a substitution of the expensive hard to acquire machining facility for the Middle East industrial society; these machining facilities include the regular Turning, Drilling, Shaping, Milling, and Grinding Machines. Our primary survey concluded that there always must be a turning machine beside a milling machine, but a milling machine (CNC milling machine) can include the rest of processes required within its operation to a good degree and the turning operation to an acceptable degree. So we chose the milling machine as our initial model to undergo our optimization plan. Therefore our Primary objective of choice is to Design a Basic Three Axis CNC milling machine. Also to manufacture a working Prototype for this machine fabricated all with nationally available components in order to minimize its cost but maintains an acceptable level of accuracy to suite a Computer Numerical Control Machine. Another Thing that we must point out is that in order to accomplish this project we need more than one trial to find the suitable combination of components and specs to pursue in order that this machine comes to light. 1.2 Proposed Approach A new approach is needed that approach is based upon the 2010-2015 World Outlook for Computer Numerical Controls [1]. The results of that survey were mainly based upon word wide research includes Middle East and North Africa. These results showed that any machine tool required for the Egyptian industrial society could be one of the following: Turning, Drilling, Shaping, Milling, and Grinding. So the first step was to pick up the operation over which this thesis will focus on. Milling can include in its operation: Drilling, Shaping, and Grinding. And might contain Turning under certain conditions. So milling was chosen. And this result might be verified by the fact that 90% of the working machine tools in the field of traditional CNC machines are either Milling or Turning Centers. Now we will compare different configuration of milling machines Case 1: A Universal Milling Machine. Case 2: A regular CNC Milling Machine. Case 3: Gantry style CNC Milling Machine. Case 1: A Universal Milling Machine From Cost point of view: Cost is high because of the usage of large material to build the bulky parts of the machine tool might be as high as a CNC Milling Machine From Design point of view: Design level might be considered low compared with the design required in both the regular CNC machine and our machine. From Accuracy Point of view: Accuracy is very low compared to the other two cases but could be difficulty approached with the use of very skilled labor and with high cost. Case 2: A regular CNC machine From Cost Point of view: Cost is much higher because of the usage of both large material amounts with high machining grade as will as the cost of the motion control equipments. From Design Point of view: Design is better than the first case for every part is designed to enhance the entire machining operation. From Accuracy Point of view: Attained accuracy is very high due to perfect guide ways assisted by ball screws along with feed back control. Case 3: A gantry CNC milling machine From Cost Point of view: Cost is mush less than the later case and might be less that the first case as the entire machine is only build from a metal sheet and some Bars. From Design Point of view: Design is much sophisticated than the first and the second case as the design is optimized to hold the predetermined forces as a light weight structure. From Accuracy Point of view: Accuracy is for sure less than the second case but higher than the first case as there is no feedback control technique employed. Discussion of results: For case 1: Universal Milling Machine Our results dont imply that the use of that machine is not appropriate but we only mean that each application requires a certain machine and also each goal. The cost is very high in EGYPT as almost all of them is imported but not made in EGYPT but there maintenance and overhauling is available domestically. For Case 2: three axis CNC milling machine Vertical Column type. The usage of this type of machines in any workshop requires a great deal of money so most of the manufacturers comprises between money and accuracy. The cost is definitely much higher as there is almost no one building or even providing maintenance for these machines in EGYPT. For Case 3: Gantry style CNC milling machine. The usage of this machine is aimed to workshops who would like to get both cheap machining with good accuracy. The cost is very low as of the innovative design of putting the entire axis moving over each other rather than independent from each other as in the regular design of any CNC machine Chapter II Literature Review 2.1 Milling Machine Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or irregular surfaces by feeding the work piece against a rotating cutter containing a number of cutting edges. The milling machine consists basically of a motor driven spindle, which mounts and revolves the milling cutter, and a reciprocating adjustable worktable, which mounts and feeds the work piece. 2.1.2 Milling Machine History Unlike lathes, which have been known for thousands of years, milling machines are less than two hundred years old. Because they require much more power than hand-driven lathes, their introduction had to wait for the invention of industrial water and steam power. Also, all their mechanical components had to first be made available, such as accurately fitted slides, large castings to resist cutting forces, calibrated lead screws, and hardened steel cutting tools. Eli Whitney is credited with inventing the first milling machine about 1818, but the knee-and-column support arrangement of the universal milling machine of Joseph A. Brown (later of Brown and Sharpe) dates from 1862 and marks an important step in the machines development. During the last half of the nineteenth Century, milling machines gradually replaced shapers and planers which have lathe-type, single-point tool bits that move over the work in a straight line and scrape off metal one stroke at a time. Milling machines, with their continuous cutting action, not only remove metal faster than shapers and planers, they perform additional operations like cutting helices for gears and twist drills. Today, milling machines greatly outnumber shaping and planning machines. Americans in New England and later the Midwest continuously added features leading to the modern milling machine. Another important development came in the 1930s when Rudolph Bannow and Magnus Wahlstrom brought out the Bridgeport-style vertical milling machine. This design offers versatility and economy in place of the higher metal removal rates of traditional horizontal milling machines. Because of this versatility, there are more Bridgeport-style mills in existence today than any other milling machine design. Horizontal mills are now usually reserved for production applications where high metal removal rates on identical parts are needed, not prototyping and short runs. Bridgeport-style machines are also called knee-and-column machines and turret mills. For production applications, there are large, expensive milling machines with three or more axes under computer control. Some machines perform all operations including automatic tool changing. However, today there is an intermediate step between a manual mill and a fully automated one. Adding a computer, digital readouts, and actuators to the X- and Y-axes of a Bridgeport-style mill does this. Not only can this enhanced machine tirelessly perform all its existing repetitive functions, it also has added new capabilities. Now the mill can engrave (drive the tool to cut numbers and letters in various sizes and fonts), cut radii and angles without a rotary table, make islands, pockets, and cut ellipses, and frames. Entering the position, diameter and number of holes, automates cutting a bolt-hole pattern; the system does the math. The computer can automatically compensate for the reduced diameter of re sharp end milling cutters, saving time and money. The system can be manually programmed through its control panel, use stored programs, â€Å"learn† new tasks by memorizing a series of manual operations as the operator makes the first part, or accept files from CAD programs. 2.1.1 Type of MILLING MACHINES Milling machine are classified on the base of the position of their spindle. The spindle operates in either a vertical or horizontal position or on base of construction. In a following section we represent the different type of milling machine. Column Knee-type Milling Machine Fig 2 machines are characterized by a vertically adjustable worktable resting on a saddle which is supported by a knee. The knee is a massive casting that rides vertically on the milling machine column and can be clamped rigidly to have column in a position where the milling head and milling machine spindle are properly adjusted for operation. The plain vertical column knee type machines are characterized by a spindle located vertically, parallel to the column face, and mounted in a sliding head that can be fed up and down by hand or power. Modern vertical milling machines are designed so the entire head can also swivel to permit working on angular surfaces. The plain horizontal milling machines column contains the drive motor and gearing and a fixed position horizontal milling machine spindle. An adjustable overhead arm containing one or more arbor supports projects forward from the top of the column. The arm and arbor supports are used to stabilize long arbors. Supports can be moved along the overhead arm to support the arbor where support is desired depending on the position of the milling cutter or cutters. UNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE The basic difference between a universal milling machine and a plain column knee type milling machine is the addition of table swivel housing between the table and the saddle of the universal machine. This permits the table to swing up to 45 ° in either direction for angular and helical milling operations. The universal machine can be fitted with various attachments such as the indexing fixture, rotary table, slotting and rack cutting attachments, and various special fixtures. RAM-TYPE MILLING MACHINEThe ram-type milling machine is characterized by a spindle mounted to a movable housing on the column to permit positioning the milling cutter forward or rearward in a horizontal plane. Two popular ram-type milling machines are the universal milling machine and the swivel cutter head ram-type milling machine. Gantry Milling Machinefigure 5is simplest construction of milling machine is usually use in CNC machine for cutting wood plastic and light metal Rotary-Table Milling MachinesThese are also called continuous milling machines, as the work picas are set up without stopping the operation. Rotary-table machines are highly productive; consequently, they are frequently used for both batch and mass production. The Work prices being machined are clamped in fixtures installed on the rotating table (2) figure 6. The machines may be equipped with one or two spindle heads (1).When several surfaces are to be machined; the Work pieces are indexed in the fixtures after each complete revolution of the table. The machining cycle provides as many table revolutions as the number of surfaces to be machined. 2.1.2 MILLING CUTTERS The milling cutters are selected for each specified machining duty. The milling cutter may be provided with a hole to be mounted on the arbor of the horizontal milling machines, or provided with a straight or tapered shank for mounting on the vertical or horizontal milling machine. Figure 7 visualizes commonly used milling cutters during their operation. These include the following: Plain milling cutters are either straight or helical ones. Helical milling cutters are preferred for large cutting widths to provide smooth cutting and improved surface quality (Figure 7 a). Plain milling cutters are mainly used on horizontal milling machines. Face milling cutters are used for the production of horizontal (Figure 7 b), vertical (Figure 7 c), or inclined (Figure 7 d) at surfaces. They are used on vertical milling machines, planer type milling machines, and vertical milling machines with the spindle swiveled to the required angle. Side milling cutters are clamped on the arbor of the horizontal milling machine and are used for machining of the vertical surface of a shoulder (Figure 7 e) or cutting a keyway (Figure 7 f). Interlocking (staggered) side mills (Figure 7 g) mounted on the arbor of the horizontal milling machines are intended to cut wide keyways and cavities. Slitting saws (Figure 7 h) are used on horizontal milling machines. Angle milling cutters, used on horizontal milling machines, for the production of longitudinal grooves (Figure 7 I) or for edge chamfering. End mills are tools of a shank type, which can be mounted on vertical milling machines (or directly in the spindle nose of horizontal milling machines). End mills may be employed in machining keyways (Figure 7 j) or vertical surfaces (Figure 7 k). Key-cutters are also of the shank type that can be used on vertical milling machines. They may be used for single-pass milling or multi pass milling operations (Figures 7 l and 7 m). Form-milling cutters are mounted on horizontal milling machines. Form cutters may be either concave as shown in (Figure 7 n) or convex as in Figure (7 o). T-slot cutters are used for milling T-slots and are available in different sizes. The T-slot is machined on a vertical milling machine in two steps: 1-Slotting with end mill (Figure 7 j) 2-Cutting with T-slot cutter (Figure 7 p). Compound milling cutters are mainly used to produce compound surfaces. These cutters realize high productivity and accuracy (Figure 7 q). Inserted tool milling cutters have a main body that is fabricated from tough and less expensive steel. The teeth are made of alloy tool steel, HSS, carbides, ceramics, or cubic boron nitride (CBN) and mechanically attached to the body using set screws and in some cases are brazed. Cutters of this type are confined usually to large-diameter face milling cutters or horizontal milling cutters (Figure 7 q). Gear milling cutters are used for the production of spur and helical gears on vertical or horizontal milling machines (Figures 7 r and 7 s). Gear cutters are form-relieved cutters, which are used to mill contoured surfaces. They are sharpened at the tooth face. Hobbing machines and gear shapers are used to cut gears for mass production and high-accuracy demands. 2.1.3 Milling operation Milling is the removal of metal by feeding the work past a rotating multi toothed cutter. In this operation the material removal rate (MRR) is enhanced as the cutter rotates at a high cutting speed. The surface quality is also improved due to the multi cutting edges of the milling cutter. The action of the milling cutter is totally different from that of a drill or a turning tool. In turning and drilling, the tools are kept continuously in contact with the material to be cut, whereas milling is an intermittent process, as each tooth produces a chip of variable thickness. Milling operations may be classified as peripheral (plain) milling or face (end) milling (Figure 8). In peripheral milling, the cutting occurs by the teeth arranged on the periphery of the milling cutter, and the generated surface is a plane parallel to the cutter axis. Peripheral milling is usually performed on a horizontal milling machine. For this reason, it is sometimes called horizontal milling. The appearance of the surface and also the type of chip formation are affected by the direction of cutter rotation with respect to the movement of the WP. In this regard, two types of peripheral milling are differentiable, namely, up-milling and down-milling. Up-milling is accomplished by rotating the cutter against the direction of the feed of the WP (Figure 9 a). The tooth picks up from the material gradually; that is, the chip starts with no thickness and increases in size as the teeth progress through the cut. This means that the cycle of operation to remove the chip is first a sliding action at the beginning and then a crushing action takes place, which is followed by the actual cutting action. In some metals, up-milling leads to strain hardening of the machined surface, and also to chattering and excessive teeth blunting. Advantages of up-milling include the following: It does not require a backlash eliminator. It is safer in operation (the cutter does not climb on the work). Loads on teeth are acting gradually. Built-up edge (BUE) fragments are absent from the machined surface. The milling cutter is not affected by the sandy or scaly surfaces of the work. Down-Milling is accomplished by rotating the cutter in the direction of the work feed, as shown in Figure 9b. In climb milling, as implied by the name, the milling cutter attempts to climb the WP. Chips are cut to maximum thickness at initial engagement of cutter teeth with the work, and decrease to zero at the end of its engagement. The cutting forces in down milling are directed downward. Down-milling should not be attempted if machines do not have enough rigidity and are not provided with backlash eliminators. Under such circumstances, the cutter climbs up on the WP and the arbor and spindle may be damaged. Advantages of down-milling include the following: Fixtures are simpler and less costly, as cutting forces are acting downward. Flat WPs or plates that cannot be held can be machined by down-milling. Cutter with higher rake angles can be used, which decreases the power requirements. Tool blunting is less likely. Down-milling is characterized by fewer tendencies of chattering and vibration, which leads to improved surface finish. up milling down milling In face milling, the generated surface is at a right angle to the cutter axis. When using cutters of large diameters, it is a good practice to tilt the spindle head slightly at an angle of 13 ° to provide some clearance, which leads to an improved surface finish and eliminate tool blunting. Face milling is usually performed on vertical milling machines; for this reason, the process is called vertical milling, which is more productive than plain milling. 2.2 Computer Numerical Control The abbreviation CNC stands for computer numerical control, and refers specifically to a computer controller that reads G-code instructions and drives a machine tool, a powered mechanical device typically used to fabricate components by the selective removal of material. CNC does numerically directed interpolation of a cutting tool in the work envelope of a machine. The operating parameters of the CNC can be altered via a software load program. 2.2.1 Historical overview CNC was preceded by NC (Numerically Controlled) machines, which were hard wired and their operating parameters could not be changed. NC was developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s by John T. Parsons in collaboration with the MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory. The first CNC systems used NC style hardware, and the computer was used for the tool compensation calculations and sometimes for editing. Punched tape continued to be used as a medium for transferring G-codes into the controller for many decades after 1950, until it was eventually superseded by RS232 cables, floppy disks, and now is commonly tied directly into plant networks. The files containing the G-codes to be interpreted by the controller are usually saved under the .NC extension. Most shops have their own saving format that matches their ISO certification requirements. The introduction of CNC machines radically changed the manufacturing industry. Curves are as easy to cut as straight lines, complex 3-D structures are relatively easy to produce, and the number of machining steps that required human action has been dramatically reduced. With the increased automation of manufacturing processes with CNC machining, considerable improvements in consistency and quality have been achieved with no strain on the operator. CNC automation reduced the frequency of errors and provided CNC operators with time to perform additional tasks. CNC automation also allows for more flexibility in the way parts are held in the manufacturing process and the time required changing the machine to produce different components. 2.2.2 Production environment A series of CNC machines may be combined into one station, commonly called a cell, to progressively machine a part requiring several operations. CNC machines today are controlled directly from files created by CAM software packages, so that a part or assembly can go directly from design to manufacturing without the need of producing a drafted paper drawing of the manufactured component. In a sense, the CNC machines represent a special segment of industrial robot systems, as they are programmable to perform many kinds of machining operations (within their designed physical limits, like other robotic systems). CNC machines can run over night and over weekends without operator intervention. Error detection features have been developed, giving CNC machines the ability to call the operators mobile phone if it detects that a tool has broken. While the machine is awaiting replacement on the tool, it would run other parts it is already loaded with up to that tool and wait for the operator. T he ever changing intelligence of CNC controllers has dramatically increased job shop cell production. Some machines might even make 1000 parts on a weekend with no operator, checking each part with lasers and sensors. 2.2.3 CNC Components and Control System The two main components of a CNC machine are the machine tool and the machine control unit (MCU). The MCU is the computer that operates the machine tool. There are many manufacturers of these control units, so program codes may vary somewhat between machines. Figure 10 shows three types of control systems for NC and CNC machines. The least expensive type is called a point-to-point (PTP) control system. A PTP control system can only move a tool in a straight line and is limited to hole operations (drilling, boring, reaming, etc.) and spot welding. The tool path between points is not controllable in a PTP system. A straight-cut control system is capable of moving the cutting tools in a straight line between points. However, only one axis drive motor can move at one time, so arcs and angles are not possible. The contouring control system is the most expensive and flexible of the three systems. With the recent advances in electronics, the price difference between these systems has narrowed so much that every CNC machine is now manufactured with a contouring control system. A contouring system is capable of doing what the other systems can do while also being able to cut arcs and angles. 2.2.3 Positioning Formats A CNC program is written using the Cartesian coordinate system. The CNC tool can be moved inside the rectangular coordinates in either two or three dimensions. Lathes are programmed two-dimensionally using only the x- and y-axes, while milling machines are programmed three-dimensionally using the x-, y-, and z-axes. The z-axis is always the axis that determines the depth of cut. The x-axis is parallel to the longest length of the machine table, and the y-axis is parallel to the shortest length of the machine table. CNC programs can be written in one quadrant or four quadrants. CNC machines can be positioned in two ways with respect to the Cartesian coordinate system. They can be positioned in an absolute format or an incremental format. In the absolute format, all machine locations are taken from starting point (0, 0), which is referred to as the home position. In incremental format there are no assigned or home coordinates. The cutter tool bit moves in spaces (increments) relative to the coordinates previously listed. The absolute format is typically used for the main body of a CNC program. This allows the cutting tool to be given a home position to start and end its job. The incremental format is used in the middle of a program when a repetitious cycle (commonly referred to as a canned cycle) is needed. A canned cycle is a cutting pattern that can be programmed to repeat as many times as desired. It can reduce the size of a program tremendously, depending on the number of machining operations involved. The size of a program is reduced by a canned cycle because a programmer does not have to give the fixed coordinates of each move of the cutting tool. A programmer must only give the distance from each previous move of the cutter for one cycle. After that, a programmer merely has to list the number of times the cycle must be repeated. A programmer can also call up the canned cycle and use it again to do a similar machining operation in another part of the work piece. 2.2.4 CNC Programming Because of the added feature of a computers memory, CNC programming is a lot easier and simpler than conventional NC programming. Most CNC machines can be programmed using a standardized list of codes that were developed by the Electronics Industries Association (EIA), as shown in Table 1. These codes include preparatory functions or G codes. Some of these functions include cutting an arc in a clockwise direction (G02 circular interpolation) and telling the machine that the dimensions will be given in millimeters (G71-metric programming). 2.2.5 Task Flow in CNC The task flow that is needed for producing apart using a CNC machine can be summarizedas Fig.1.2.The tasks can be classified as the following three types: Offline tasks: CAD, CAPP, CAM. Online tasks: CNC machining, monitoring and On Machine Measurement. Post-line tasks: Computer Aided Inspection (CAI), post-operation. Offline tasks are the tasks that are needed to generate apart program for controlling a CNC machine. In the offline stage, after the shape of apart has been decided, a geometry model of this part is created by 2D or 3D CAD. In general, CAD means Computer Aided Design After finishing geometric modeling, Computer Aided Process Planning, CAPP, is carried out where necessary information for machining is generated. In this stage, the Selection of machine tools, tools, jig and fixture, decisions about cutting conditions, Scheduling and machining sequences are created. Because process planning is very Complicated and CAPP is immature with respect to technology, process planning generally depends on the know how of a process planner. CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) is executed in the final stage for generating apart program. In this stage, tool paths are generated based on geometry information from CAD and machining information from CAPP. During tool path generation, interferences between tool and work piece, minimization of machining time and tool change, and machine performance are considered .In particular; CAM is an essential tool to generate 2.5D or 3D tool paths for machine tools with more than three axes. Online tasks are those that are needed to machine parts using CNC machines. A part program, being the machine understandable instructions, can be generated in the above mentioned offline stage and part programs for a simple part can be directly edited in CNC by the user. In this stage, the CNC system reads and interprets part programs from memory and controls the movement of axes. The CNC system generates instructions for position and velocity control based on the part program and servo motors are controlled based on the instructions generated. As the rotation of a servo motor is transformed into linear movement via ball screw mechanisms, the work piece or tool is moved and finally, the part is machined by these movements. In the online stage, the status of the machine and machining process may be monitored during machining. Actually, tool breakage detection, compensation of thermal deformation, adaptive control, and compensation of tool defection based on monitoring of cutting force, heat, and electric current are applied during machining. On Machine Measurement is also used to calculate machining error by inspecting the finished part on the machine, returning machining errors to controller to carryout compensation. The post-line task is to carryout CAI (Computer Aided Inspection), inspecting the finished part. In this stage, inspection using a CMM (Coordinate Measurement Machine) is used to make a comparison between the result and the geometry model in order to perform compensation. The compensation is executed by modifying tool Compensation or by doing post operations such as re machining and grinding. Reverse engineering, meaning that the shape of the part is measured and a geometric model based on the measured data is generated, is included in this stage. As mentioned above, through three stages, it is possible for machine tools not only to satisfy high accuracy and productivity but also to machine parts with complex shape as well as simple shapes. Because CNC machines can machine a variety of parts by changing the part program and repetitively machine the same part shape by storing part programs, CNC machines can be used for general purposes.

The Ineptitude Of The United S :: essays research papers

"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." Those are the opening lines to the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independence was written in 1776. Yet, slavery continued in the United States for nearly ninety years after this document declared that "all men where created equal," and those "unalienable rights" are still not shared by everyone in the United States. The U.S. has been lacking in its responsibility to its citizens. The state responsibility for human and civil rights must be expanded in the United States. In December 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The thirty articles of the UDHR were developed to provide a clear definition of human rights. It then became the responsibility of the states of the United Nations to protect those rights. This is where the United States is lacking. The U.S. is one of the founding nations of the United Nations and one of the most influential, yet it has failed to take adequate state responsibility for human rights. Before the ineptitude of the United States can be discussed, the concept of state responsibility for human and civil rights must be clearly defined. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines state as "a politically organized body of people usually occupying a definite territory," and responsibility as "moral, legal, or mental accountability." These definitions of state and responsibility can be interpreted and combined to provide a literal definition of state responsibility. The definition of state responsibility could then be seen as "the moral and legal accountability of a government." A concise notion of state responsibility for human and civil rights would then be congruent to "the moral and legal accountability of government for life, liberty, security, and any other finite right of a person." With the concept of state responsibility for human and civil rights having been defined, the extent of state responsibility in the United States can be discussed. Rhonda Copelon once noted, "†¦the most limited conception of state responsibility [in the United States] has been essentially dismantled." Copelon also made a statement to the effect that rights in the U.S. are limited to constraints on government and that they do not reach private conduct or include the most basic social and economic needs.

Cloud Computing: Two Articles

Cloud Computing Articles One of the recent trends in the fast paced field of Information Technology is the development of cloud computing. Simply put, cloud computing is the outsourcing of business processing and storage to â€Å"virtual† servers over a network, most commonly the internet. The advance of network technology has allowed companies to transfer large amounts of their business intelligence systems to outside servers, without compromising data-transfer speed. Two recent articles from different publications covered the subject of cloud computing. The first, found online from InfoWorld. om, describes the different levels of cloud computing and what each entails. The second article, found in a monthly publication of Computer World, details the pros and cons of clouds in IT. According to the InfoWorld. com article, cloud computing is â€Å"a way to increase capacity or add capabilities on the fly without investing in new infrastructure, training new personnel, or licens ing new software. Cloud computing encompasses any subscription-based or pay-per-use service that, in real time over the Internet, extends IT's existing capabilities. † (InfoWorld. om) Clouds are a modern answer to IT’s ever increasing needs for storage space and computing power. There are several types of services that these virtual servers offer, ranging from utility applications to email spam filtering. Currently, most of the servers must be accessed individually, but they are becoming more integrated as the field progresses. One type of cloud computing, software as a service (SaaS), is the hosting of one software application through the internet. An example this type of application is Salesforce. com, a sales representative management system. By providing the software online, Salesforce. com provides an easy way for managers to monitor and diagnose sales data, without the need for their own costly IT system in-house. SaaS also gives an advantage to the host company, because updates and bug fixes are limited to one program which they control. There are several variations to the Saas system that are offered in cloud computing. Utility computing involves a company’s memory, input / output Storage, and computational capacity being accessed through the network to a â€Å"virtual† server. Currently, most cloud utility computing is for non critical intelligence, due to newness of the system. According to the article, these online servers could one day replace most of the current physical datacenter. Another variation to Saas within cloud computing is web based application programming interfaces. APIs are â€Å"interfaces implemented by an online source that enable interaction with other software† (Wikepedia. org). There is a wide range of APIs used with business intelligence. Some examples would be Google Maps used by delivery services, shipping tracking for UPS, or online tax processing programs such as TurboTax. One of the original forms of cloud computing are managed service providers (MSPs), which are applications that are exposed to the host company, rather than the end user. Examples of MSPs are e-mail virus scanning and anti-spam services, or desktop management offered by companies such as CenterBeam. Managed security services, such as firewalls, are also found within cloud computing. The Computer World article goes further to describe an aspect of cloud computing called infrastructure as a service (Iaas). â€Å"With public cloud IaaS, organizations pay per use or per cluster of resources for an external cloud service provider to host their virtual servers†¦ IT maintains control over the applications without worrying about configuring, upgrading or patching servers and other infrastructure. If a new application is needed, IT simply loads that application onto the service provider’s virtual server and the software is available to users† (Computer World). By migrating the physical datacenters to virtual servers, companies are saving maintenance, power and labor costs from the upkeep of those resources. Most established companies are making the transition to clouds slowly, a couple of datacenters at a time, as they become outdated. Startup businesses, however, can use virtual servers as a great advantage to avoid costly equipment purchases. â€Å"Bernard Golden, CEO of consultancy HyperStatus, agrees that Iaas offers a lifeline when it comes to rising data center costs and real estate constraints. It offers IT the opportunity to reduce the data center management burden, yet improve customer service† (Computer World). For a company who is contemplating the switch to virtual servers, there is also security and legality issues to consider. Migrating large amounts of data, without disrupting critical files, can be risky. One company, Amylin Pharmaceuticals, â€Å"started slowly with self contained, non mission critical applications such as testing and development so they could learn the ins and outs of moving into the cloud† (Computer World). The company should inquire as to the host server’s security and firewall systems, and should always keep hard copies of important data and applications. Business documents that are highly valuable to a company, such as patent documents, customer databases, and technical drawings are not usually stored in the cloud network. The international field of computer hacking is expanding, especially in developing countries, making industrial espionage a serious subject for businesses to consider. A company migrating to cloud computing must also consider the legal aspects of moving their IT systems. Software licenses may not apply to a public network, where the applications can be shared by several end user computers. The company should also know the terms of contracting with the cloud servers, should they decide to break or end the agreement. All data that could be detrimental to the firm should be destroyed by the host server once the contract is void. Some businesses are closely regulated by government agencies such as the FDA or ANSA, and should keep relative files readily accessible. There are also government regulations to consider concerning customer information. The article describes how IT manager Charles Swartz, of Preferred Hotel Group, adheres to regulations. â€Å"Because the company deals with credit card transactions, it must follow the Payment Card Data Security Standard, which requires physical control over servers handling that data. To avoid any complications, Swartz makes sure all credit card transactions go directly to a third party and he avoids keeping any of that data on his outsourced infrastructure† (Computer World). Another issue to consider when switching to a cloud network is computing speed. Where IT systems may have been fast to load or run on a local area network, a wide area network could transfer at a higher or lower speed. With modern business transactions becoming faster than ever, customers expect quick response. â€Å"Delays of just a few milliseconds can cause them [end users] to be frustrated† (Computer World). Switching to cloud networks can be an advantage to speed, if the cloud provides a larger bandwidth than the in-house servers. A higher bandwidth also allows more end users to access the system at once without slowing download speeds significantly. Jason Harper, vice president of technology at Morgans Hotel Group in New York, say customer satisfaction has increased at his shop because end users are accessing their files faster via the cloud† (Computer World). One recommended use of the cloud system is test run or seasonal IT systems. Rather than expanding physical datacenter space for temporary projects, the public servers can be easily setup to run and store data. â€Å"The public cloud is great for short term usage, since very few enterprises have spare servers lying around anymore. Instead, it enables IT to have quick response to new projects without having to preplan† (Computer World). The article does warn, however, that low barrier to entry can be over-sourced. Often-times end users might jump into applications on cloud networks without consulting their IT professionals. This could lead to costly changes down the line, which could have been easily fixed at the setup of the systems. Despite being in an early stage of development, cloud computing already has a definite niche in the business and IT world. One of the main drawbacks at this point is the lack of integration between systems. Previous attempts to create cloud integration technology, such as CapeClear’s enterprise service bus, and a universal bus system by Grand Central, have failed to stay in business. The overall trend of using virtual servers, however, does seem appear to be here to stay. Sources: â€Å"What Cloud Computing Really Means† Infoworld. com Knorr, 4-27-2008 http://www. infoworld. com/d/cloud-computing/what-cloud-computing-really-means-031 â€Å"Moving to the cloud: Big savings, but plan ahead† Computer World Gittlen, March 2010

Laughing and Crying essays

Laughing and Crying essays Laughing and Crying The bridge between laughing and crying is not long. During submarine deployments, it is customary to tell sea stories on those long boring mid-watches. During one particular mid-watch I told an amazing story that happened to me ten years earlier while stationed on my last submarine. This story shouldnt be told when your boss is part of the group because there could be repercussions that you may feel later. My story begins when I was on a submarine that was home-ported in Vallejo, CA. Like most naval bases it also has a McDonalds. The submarine was delayed for a scheduled underway this particular day and my division and myself decided to go to McDonalds for lunch. This McDonalds was laid out as any other McDonalds with a side entrance and a long seating area down the side. Most of the submarine crew was already there sitting on the side seats, and I proceeded up to the counter to place my order. I ordered a Combo Meal that came to $4.85 and gave the cashier a ten-dollar bill. She placed a five-dollar bill and the change on my tray as I was leaving. When I came around the corner to the area my shipmates were sitting, someone opened the doors to enter the restaurant and my five-dollar bill blew off my tray. I quickly glanced down and noticed it fell near the corner table were a lady and her two children were sitting. I continued to the table where I wanted to sit to put my tray down. I placed my tray on the table then turned to go back to retrieve my five-dollar bill. I went back to the area where my money blew off near the table the lady and her two children were sitting. I looked around and didnt see it, so I asked the little boy that was sitting on the end of the table if he had seen my five-dollar bill. He politely said no sir and then his mom asked can I help you and I told her th...

Tobacco Company essays

Tobacco Company essays The Changing Political Environment For Tobacco Implications for Southern Tobacco Farmers, Rural Economies, Taxpayers and Consumers A. Blake Brown, William M. Snell, and Kelly H. Tiller Since the early settlers discovered tobacco being grown by native North Americans, tobacco has been an important commodity in the south. But it also been a very controversial one. The tobacco debate has intensified during the 1990s. Existing and proposed regulations and restrictions, excise tax increases, health issues, changing social attitudes towards tobacco use, litigation, and international competition have induced much uncertainty regarding the future of the tobacco program, tobacco farming, and many southern rural economies. All of these issues were intensified and highlighted during last years lengthy debate over a national tobacco settlement. The debate prompted visits to tobacco-producing states by President Clinton and Secretary of Agriculture Glickman and consumed an unprecedented 3 Â ½ weeks of debate on the U.S. Senate floor. Although national tobacco settlement legislation never materialized in 1998, the tobacco companies and the states attorneys general were successful in developing an agreement to settle existing state Medicaid lawsuits in exchange for tobacco industry agreement to change some of their marketing practices and payments in excess of $200 billion over 25 years. While the growers were not part of the settlement, the following statement was included in the agreement: Whereas, the participating manufacturers recognize the concern of the tobacco grower community that it may be adversely affected by the potential reduction in tobacco consumption resulting from this settlement, (the manufacturers) reaffirm their commitment to work cooperatively to address concerns about the potential adverse economic impact Paper Presented at the Southern Agricultural Econ...

Systems Analysis and Design Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Systems Analysis and Design - Case Study Example This new inspiring media has the capability to help people find their true purpose, reinforce their ability to bond compassionately with others, as well as motivate them to find greater achievement in every area of their lives (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012). The application also specializes in creating music for healing settings that deepens someone’s connection to what is most useful. It is enhanced by the influence of a musical recording. Products of contemplative media feature the sympathetic verbal messages of the worlds humanitarian and spiritual leaders. They also have those of common people facing unusual circumstances. Contemplative Media is an innovative kind in contemplative, life-attractive media. The films can give a refreshing method to decrease stress as well as restore stability to the heart, mind, and soul. By including oral wisdom from the present most celebrated voices in spirituality and self-help, these film havens offer experiences of reflective beauty and an association with what is most useful. Users will turn out to be more fulfilled by heartening their lives with music, as well as messages from the contemplative media (Satzinger, Jackson, & Burd, 2012). The media system anticipates answering the following issues: What types of occurrences can be anticipated on or after meditation? What foretells why some individuals have intricate and other pleasing experiences? Could there be some meditation practices that appear to yield more compassionate or vivid incidences than others? Are there definite classes of people that ought to use concern when meditating? If somebody experiences difficult experiences while meditating, what must they do? Interviews can occur over Skype, over the phone, or in person. It depends on where the respondents live. In the interviews, respondents will answer about their meditation interrelated experiences, factors of influence, and ways that

The Integrated Arts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Integrated Arts - Essay Example Collections are often secretive, sometimes fetishistic, and can consist of the mundane and disposable, fragments of nature or urban waste (Meecham and Sheldon, 2000, p. 190-192). Art through the eyes of an artist represents the different moods, features, and aesthetics of the contemporary world. The same cannot be said of the spectator, who like many before and after him, see art as a piece of sexuality and provocation. Any discussion on art brings one noting the Greeks. The Greeks during the high classical age (470-430 BC), created standing sculptures of human figures, carved out of limestone and marbles, adapting seventh century Egyptian models. These sculptures were stiff, rigid, decorative, subordinate elements of tombs and temples rather than true sculpture. The range of depictions on heroic nude male (often in athletic contests) and draped female figures were prominent1. Each figure of the period reflected the artistic marvel and importance to this form of art. The sculptures were true living representations of the lifestyle and culture enjoyed by the prominent people of that age. In continuation on the subject of art and artists, this paper focuses on two distinct artists and their way of presenting contemporary world to their audience. First, the paper looks at the works of Fred Wilson and Conceptual Art, and then it's the turn of Judy Chicago and Feminist Art. Fred Wilson is a2.0 Fred Wilson and the Conceptual Art Fred Wilson is a conceptual artist; he doesn't paint, sculpt ortake photographs as he used to, but works with museums, culling through their collections and selecting objects to make his point. He arranges these exhibits against the backdrop of selective wall colors, display cases, lighting and wall labels to communicate with his audience. At an exhibit for the Maryland Historical Society, he juxtaposed fine silver service with slave shackles, and four period chairs lined up to observe a whipping post. He was more than convincing in conveying the message of white oppression over the black; the refined products of white society such as the silver service and chairs against slave shackles and whipping post. Wilson uses the objects to great effect, and this particular exhibit strongly reflected the white society's oppression of the black community. Most of his exhibitions harbor on racism. As a conceptual artist, Wilson takes pain to gather as much relevant material as possible from dif ferent places, and then using his artistic excellence, recreates images that has a longstanding impression on the viewer. In the 'Colonial Collection,' Wilson mocks a museum display, using a row of street-bought African masks with their eyes covered with pieces of the British flag. In a display case in front of the masks are insects and lithographs showing the British infantry fighting native Africans. Wilson has been quite critical of museums and the way they projected artifacts. In many cases, museums have kept materials of historical relevance from public viewing or importance. In 'Old Salem: A Family of Strangers,' 20 or so color photographs of cloth dolls made by blacks during the 19th and 20th centuries were left undisclosed from public viewing from the collection of a southern museum. Wilson has left no stone unturned to